The Vampire Diaries: The Struggle Chapter Five

November 2, Saturday Dear Diary, This morning I woke up and felt so strange. I don't know how to describe it. On the one hand, I was so weak that when I tried to stand up my muscles wouldn't support me. But on the other hand I felt†¦ pleasant.So comfortable , sorelaxed. As if I were floating on a bed of golden light. I didn't care if I never moved again. Then I remembered Stefan, and I tried to get up, but Aunt Judith put me back to bed. She said Bonnie and Meredith had left hours ago, and that I'd been so fast asleep they couldn't wake me. She said what I needed was rest. So here I am. Aunt Judith brought the TVin,but I don't care about watching it. I'd rather lie here and write, or just lie here. November 3,Sunday (10:30 p.m.) I've just read over yesterday's entry and I'm shocked. What was wrong with me? I broke off in the middle of a sentence, and now I don'teven know what I was going to say. And I didn'texplain about my new diary or anything. I must have been completely spaced out. Anyway, this is the official start of my new diary. I boughtthis blank book at the drugstore. It's not as beautiful as the other one, but it will have to do. I've given up hope of ever seeing my old one again. Whoever stole it isn't going to bring it back. But when I think of them reading it, all my inner thoughts and my feelings about Stefan, I want to kill them. While simultaneously dying of humiliation myself. I'm not ashamed of the way I feel about Stefan. But it's private. And there are things in there, about the way it is when we kiss, when he holds me, that I know he wouldn't want anybody else to read. Of course, it hasn't got anything about his secret in it. I hadn't found that out yet. It wasn't until I did that I really understood him, and we got together, really together, at last. Now we're part of each other. I feel as if I've been waiting for him all my life. Maybe you think I'm terrible for loving him, considering what he is. He can be violent, and I know there are some things in his past that he's ashamed of. But he could never be violent toward me,and the past is over. He has so much guilt and he hurts so much inside. I want to heal him. I don't know what will happen now; I'm just so glad that he's safe. I went to the boarding house today and found out that the police had been there yesterday. Stefan was still weak and couldn't use his Powers to get rid of them, but they didn't accuse him of anything. They just asked questions. Stefan says they acted friendly, which makes me suspicious. What all the questions really boil down to is: where were you on the night the old man was attacked under the bridge, and the night Vickie Bennett was attacked in the ruined church, and the night Mr. Tanner was killed at school? They don't have any evidence against him. So the crimes started right after he came to Fell's Church, so what? That's not proof of anything. So he argued with Mr. Tanner that night. Again, so what? Everybody argued with Mr. Tanner. So he disappeared after Mr. Tanner's body was found. He's back now, and it's pretty clear that he was attacked himself, by the same person who committed the other crimes. Mary told the police about the condition he was in. And if they ever ask us, Matt and Bonnie and Meredith and I can all testify how we found him. There's no case against him at all. Stefan and I talked about that, and about other things. It was so good to be with him again, even if he did look white and tired. He still doesn't remember how Thursday night ended, but most of it is just as I suspected. Stefan went to find Damon Thursday night after he took me home. They argued. Stefan ended up half-dead in a well. It doesn't take a genius to figure out what happened in between. I still haven't told him that I went looking for Damon in the graveyard Friday morning. I suppose I'd better do it tomorrow. I know he's going to be upset, especially when he hears what Damon said to me. Well, that's all. I'm tired. This diary is going to be well-hidden, for obvious reasons. P.S. I wonder who our new European history teacher will be? She tucked the diary under her mattress and turned out the light. Elena walked down the hallway in a curious vacuum. At school she was usually peppered with greetings from all sides; it was â€Å"hi, Elena,† after â€Å"hi, Elena,† wherever she went. But today eyes slid away furtively as she approached, or people suddenly became very busy doing something that required them to keep their backs to her. It had been happening all day long. She paused in the doorway of the European history classroom. There were several students already sitting down, and at the chalkboard was a stranger. He looked almost like a student himself. He had sandy hair, worn a little long, and the build of an athlete. Across the board he had written â€Å"Alaric K. Saltzman.† As he turned around, Elena saw that he also had a boyish smile. He went on smiling as Elena sat down and other students filed in. Stefan was among them, and his eyes met Elena's as he took his seat beside her, but they didn't speak. No one was talking. The room was dead silent. Bonnie sat down on Elena's other side. Matt was only a few desks away, but he was looking straight ahead. The last two people to come in were Caroline Forbes and Tyler Smallwood. They walked in together, and Elena didn't like the look on Caroline's face. She knew that catlike smile and those narrowed green eyes all too well. Tyler's handsome, rather fleshy features were shining with satisfaction. The discoloration under his eyes caused by Stefan's fist was almost gone. â€Å"Okay, to start off, why don't we put all these desks in a circle?† Elena's attention snapped back to the stranger at the front of the room. He was still smiling. â€Å"Come on, let's do it. That way we can all see each other's faces when we talk,† he said. Silently, the students obeyed. The stranger didn't sit at Mr. Tanner's desk; instead, he pulled a chair to the circle and straddled it backward. â€Å"Now,† he said. â€Å"I know you all must be curious about me. My name's on the board: Alaric K. Saltzman. But I want you to call me Alaric. I'll tell you a little more about me later, but first I want to give you a chance to talk. â€Å"Today's probably a difficult day for most of you. Someone you cared about is gone, and that must hurt. I want to give you a chance to open up and share those feelings with me and with your classmates. I want you to try to get in touch with the pain. Then we can start to build our own relationship on trust. Now They stared at him. No one so much as moved an eyelash. â€Å"Well, let's see†¦ what about you?† Still smiling, he gestured encouragingly to a pretty, fair-haired girl. â€Å"Tell us your name and how you feel about what's happened.† Flustered, the girl stood. â€Å"My name's Sue Carson, and, uh†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She took a deep breath and went doggedly on. â€Å"And I feelscared. Because whoever this maniac is, he's still loose. And next time it could be me.† She sat down. â€Å"Thank you, Sue. I'm sure a lot of your classmates share your concern. Now, do I understand that some of you were actually there when this tragedy occurred?† Desks creaked as students shifted uneasily. But Tyler Smallwood stood up, his lips drawing back from strong white teeth in a smile. â€Å"Most of us were there,† he said, and his eyes flickered toward Stefan. Elena could see other people following his gaze. â€Å"I got there right after Bonnie discovered the body. And what I feel is concern for the community. There's a dangerous killer on the streets, and so far nobody's done anything to stop him. And – † He broke off. Elena wasn't sure how, but she felt Caroline had signaled him to do it. Caroline tossed back gleaming auburn hair and recrossed her long legs as Tyler took his seat again. â€Å"Okay, thank you. So most of you were there. That makes it doubly hard. Can we hear from the person who actually found the body? Is Bonnie here?† He looked around. Bonnie raised her hand slowly, then stood. â€Å"Iguess I discovered the body,† she said. â€Å"I mean, I was the first person who knew that he was really dead, and not just faking.† Alaric Saltzman looked slightly startled. â€Å"Not just faking? Did he often fake being dead?† There were titters, and he flashed that boyish smile again. Elena turned and glanced at Stefan, who was frowning. â€Å"No – no,† said Bonnie. â€Å"You see, he was a sacrifice. At the Haunted House. So he was covered with blood anyway, only it was fake blood. And that was partly my fault, because he didn't want to put it on, and I told him he had to do it. He was supposed to be a Bloody Corpse. But he kept saying it was too messy, and it wasn't until Stefan came and argued with him – † She stopped. â€Å"I mean, we talked to him and he finally agreed to do it, and then the Haunted House started. And a little while later I noticed that he wasn't sitting up and scaring the kids like he was supposed to, and I went over and asked him what was wrong. And he didn't answer. He just – he just kept staring at the ceiling. And then I touched him and he – it was terrible. His head just sort offlopped †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Bonnie's voice wavered and gave out. She gulped. Elena was standing up, and so were Stefan and Matt and a few other people. Elena reached over to Bonnie. â€Å"Bonnie, it's okay. Bonnie, don't; it's okay.† â€Å"And blood got all over my hands. There was blood everywhere, so much blood†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She sniffed hysterically. He stood up and paced around the center of the circle, his hands opening and shutting nervously. Bonnie was still sniffling softly. â€Å"I know,† he said, the boyish smile coming back full force. â€Å"I'd like to get our student-teacher relationship off to a good start, away from this whole atmosphere. How about if you all come around to my place this evening, and we can all talk informally? Maybe just get to know each other, maybe talk about what happened. You can even bring a friend if you want. How about it?† There was another thirty seconds or so of staring. Then someone said, â€Å"Your place?† â€Å"Yes†¦ oh, I'm forgetting. Stupid of me. I'm staying at the Ramsey house, on Magnolia Avenue.† He wrote the address on the board. â€Å"The Ramseys are friends of mine, and they loaned me the house while they're on vacation. I come from Charlottesville, and your principal called me Friday to ask me if I could take over here. I jumped at the chance. This is my first real teaching job.† â€Å"Oh, that explains it,† said Elena under her breath. â€Å"Does it?† said Stefan. â€Å"Anyway, what do you think? Is it a plan?† Alaric Saltzman looked around at them. No one had the heart to refuse. There were scattered â€Å"yeses† and â€Å"sures.† â€Å"Great, then it's settled. I'll provide the refreshments, and we'll all get to know each other. Oh, by the way†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He opened a grade book and scanned it. â€Å"In this class, participation makes up half your final grade.† He glanced up and smiled. â€Å"You can go now.† â€Å"The nerve of him,† somebody muttered as Elena went out the door. Bonnie was behind her, but Alaric Saltzman's voice called her back. â€Å"Would the students who shared with us please stay behind for a minute?† Stefan had to leave, too. â€Å"I'd better go check about football practice,† he said. â€Å"It's probably canceled, but I'd better make sure.† Elena was concerned. â€Å"If it's not canceled, do you think you're feeling up to it?† â€Å"I'll be fine,† he said evasively. But she noticed that his face still looked drawn, and he moved as if he were in pain. â€Å"Meet you at your locker,† he said. She nodded. When she got to her locker, she saw Caroline nearby talking to two other girls. Three pairs of eyes followed Elena's every move as she put away her books, but when Elena glanced up, two of them suddenly looked away. Only Caroline remained staring at her, head slightly cocked as she whispered something to the other girls. Elena had had enough. Slamming her locker, she walked straight toward the group. â€Å"Hello, Becky; hello, Sheila,† she said. Then, with heavy emphasis: â€Å"Hello, Caroline.† â€Å"What's going on?† she demanded. â€Å"Going on?† Caroline was obviously enjoying this, trying to draw it out as long as possible. â€Å"Going on with who?† â€Å"With you, Caroline. With everybody. Don't pretend you're not up to something, because I know you are. People have been avoiding me all day as if I had the plague, and you look like you just won the lottery. What have you done?† Caroline's expression of innocent inquiry slipped, and she smiled a feline smile. â€Å"I told you when school started that things were going to be different this year, Elena,† she said. â€Å"I warned you your time on the throne might be running out. But it isn'tmy doing. What's happening is simply natural selection. The law of the jungle.† â€Å"And just whatis happening?† â€Å"Well, let's just say that going out with a murderer can put a cramp in your social life.† Elena's chest tightened as if Caroline had hit her. For a moment, the desire to hit Caroline back was almost irresistible. Then, with the blood pounding in her ears, she said through clenched teeth, â€Å"That isn't true. Stefan hasn't done anything. The police questioned him, and he was cleared.† Caroline shrugged. Her smile now was patronizing. â€Å"Elena, I've known you since kindergarten,† she said, â€Å"so I'll give you some advice for old times' sake: drop Stefan. If you do it right now you might just avoid being a complete social leper. Otherwise you might as well buy yourself a little bell to ring in the street.† Rage held Elena hostage as Caroline turned and walked away, her auburn hair moving like liquid under the lights. Then Elena found her tongue. â€Å"Caroline.† The other girl turned back. â€Å"Are you going to go to that party at the Ramsey house tonight?† â€Å"I suppose so. Why?† â€Å"Because I'll be there. With Stefan. See you in the jungle.† This time Elena was the one to turn away. The dignity of her exit was slightly marred when she saw a slim, shadowed figure at the far end of the hallway. Her step faltered for an instant, but as she drew closer she recognized Stefan. She knew the smile she gave him looked forced, and he glanced back toward the lockers as they walked side by side out of the school. â€Å"So football practice was canceled?† she said. He nodded. â€Å"What was that all about?† he said quietly. â€Å"Nothing. I asked Caroline if she was going to the party tonight.† Elena tilted back her head to look at the gray and dismal sky. She remembered what he had told her in his room. He could see better than a human, and hear better, too. Well enough to catch words spoken down forty feet of corridor? â€Å"Yes,† she said defiantly, still inspecting the clouds. â€Å"And that's what made you so angry?† â€Å"Yes,† she said again, in the same tone. She could feel his eyes on her. â€Å"Elena, that's not true.† â€Å"Well, if you can read my mind, you don't need to ask me questions, do you?† They were facing each other now. Stefan was tense, his mouth set in a grim line. â€Å"You know I wouldn't do that. But I thought you were the one who was so big on honesty in relationships.† â€Å"All right. Caroline was being her usual bitchy self and shooting her mouth off about the murder. So what? Why do you care?† â€Å"Because,† said Stefan simply, brutally, â€Å"she might be right. Not about the murder but about you. About you and me. I should have realized this would happen. It's not just her, is it? I've been sensing hostility and fear all day, but I was too tired to try and analyze it. They think I'm the killer and they're taking it out on you.† â€Å"What they think doesn't matter! They're wrong, and they'll realize that eventually. Then everything will be the way it was again.† A wistful smile tugged at the corner of Stefan's mouth. â€Å"You really believe that, don't you?† He looked away, and his face hardened. â€Å"And what if they don't? What if it only gets worse?† â€Å"What are you saying?† â€Å"It might be better†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Stefan took a deep breath and continued, carefully. â€Å"It might be better if we didn't see each other for a while. If they think we're not together, they'll leave you alone.† She stared at him. â€Å"And you think you could do that? Not see me or talk to me for however long?† â€Å"If it's necessary – yes. We could pretend we've broken up.† His jaw was set. Elena stared another moment. Then she circled him and moved in closer, so close that they were almost touching. He had to look down at her, his eyes only a few inches from her own. â€Å"There is,† she said, â€Å"only one way I'm going to announce to the rest of the school that we've broken up. And that's if you tell me that you don't love me and you don't want to see me. Tell me that, Stefan, right now. Tell me that you don't want to be with me any more.† He'd stopped breathing. He stared down at her, those green eyes striated like a cat's in shades of emerald and malachite and holly green. She never got to finish the sentence. It was cut off as his mouth descended on hers.

Autism and Development Disorders Essay

This article was based on research done on children ages three to ten years around the temperament and reactions of children with Autism. It discusses the differences between those with Autism, and those without autism, specifically how they react, perceive, and overcome certain developmental musts in childhood. These results are taken from the Children’s Behavior Questionnaire, which present the sixteen dimensions of child perceptions, which includes activity level, anger and frustration, approach and withdrawal, and problems focusing. These are only a few behaviors they suggest help distinguish between children, as well as the different reactions that may suggest Autism is present in a child. This article then discusses how they went about testing the groups of different children. They had one group as a control, kids that had previously been tested on the Child Autism Rating Scale and proved negatively to having Autism, and a group of kids that when previously tested, prove d positive for Autism. They wanted to see how the Affect Regulation, and temperament varied between the groups. To test this Konstantareas and Stewart gathered a test group of nineteen children all with previous proven forms of Autism and tested them with a created Demographic Questionnaire. In this questionnaire it asks what rating a child received on the Child Autism Rating Scale, as well as investigating the income bracket in which each family would be placed, as well as an additional examination to figure out the child’s level of cognitive functioning. Testing what Kostantareas and Stewart call the DP II which is a rating for children from birth to age nine, tapping into stills in five areas of functioning, including physical, self-help, social, academic, and communication. After all of the data was collected all of the children with Autism Spectrum were combined and used to determine if they had Affect Regulation. The results indicated that the children with ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) were more likely to employ their lower level of  AR strategies, such as trying to hide an ob ject or keep in longer, rather than to ask if they could keep the object or immediately return it to the experimenter. This experiment also suggests that those diagnosed with ASD performed worse than the control group without ASD, suggesting those with Autism perform at a lower standard than those without. After reading this article and gathering all the information, I’ve formed my own ideas on Konstantareas and Stewart’s findings. In their later analysis on what they found, they suggest that children with ASD develop slower, and are found to be less competent than those who don’t. I feel there was flaw in this testing, instead of comparing these ASD patients with a control group they should be compared to others with ASD in different settings. This study suggests some limitations posed by the collecting of data, including assumptions made based on previous research, and the flawed collection places could’ve resulted in skewed findings. They collected this information over the phone via the parents in a control room setting. Other contributors in this study suggest that pe rhaps a more accurate way to measure a child’s AR would be in a less controlled setting such as school, or home. This would help with the data collected to be more accurate because the tested children would be more comfortable in their environment, and may perform better in a comfortable place. Which I agree with, the only way to see how a child truly acts, and reacts to certain problems is to see them in the environment they’re used to, children are susceptible and can be swayed easily by something they see in a control room setting. In this article it suggests that cognitive development is solely linked to AR, which I think is false. To say that Affect Regulation is the only way to successfully measure a child’s growth is an inaccurate way to think, I think however that a child’s growth is measured by a number of things not just how they measure on a scale of AR. This article also suggests that moderating temperament scales is a way to better measure children with and without ASD. I disagree completely and feel the only way to receive accurate results in the measurement o f a child’s temperament is to alter how the results overall were collected, not the scale they were measured on. This change should show these ASD children individually instead of lumping them together in a sample on a scale. The final thing this article suggests is creating some comparisons in and between subgroups, limiting factors to subcategories and  trends from within the group as a whole, once again not representing the individuals but a group of similar ASD children, no exceptions accounted for. There are a few things about this article I agree with. It suggests that children’s feelings for determining ASD cannot be properly measured by interviews, because children with ASD do not regularly show feelings, and when they do express them in a very different way than those without ASD. It suggests that a new study should be done to show the â€Å"true temperament† (pg. 10) of the kids in order to achieve the most accurate results. These researchers should find children with ASD that have both extremely severe cases, and those with more mild cases, test them against each other, and compare them to the differences of those without any form of ASD. If done this suggested way they would predict to the greatest ability how AR exists in ASD children, and in what ways it hindered them performing everyday activities. In many ways ASD affects children with Autism’s AR and temperament. Correct and effective ways to measure these in diagnosed children must be done in order to see what disabilities they may have in performing tasks later on in everyday life.

A New Intervention to Reduce Anhedonia in Schizophrenia

Meta-analyses of cognitive behavioral therapy for positive symptoms of schizophrenia have demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing hallucinations or delusions. In schizophrenia â€Å"negative symptoms’ refer to a reduction of normal functioning, and it encompasses apathy, anhedonia, flat effect, avolition, social withdrawal, and, sometimes, psychomotor retardation. The purpose of this study is the idea that Anhedonia is a challenging symptom of schizophrenia and remains largely recalcitrant to current pharmacological treatments. The goal of this exploratory pilot study was to assess if a cognitive-sensory intervention could improve anticipatory pleasure. Results show that the patients improved on the anticipatory scale of the Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale. Daily activities of the patients were also increased. In nursing research, it has been shown that the sense of mastery is negatively correlated with negative symptoms or even with the fact of being left alone. Two research questions were addressed in a sample of five participants. Does cognitive-sensory training in anticipatory pleasure in persons with schizophrenia? Does cognitive-sensory training in anticipatory pleasure lead to an increase in the number and complexity of daily activities performed by persons with schizophrenia? They did not expect that anticipatory pleasure cognitive skills training would directly improve consummatory pleasure. If persons with schizophrenia show a deficit in their ability to anticipate pleasure rather than consummatory pleasure, then it becomes possible to consider cognitive training might help these individuals anticipate pleasure from foreseeable, future activities. I feel the author did a good job using literature to support their predictions and I was convinced by their argument. The author used well supporting concepts to prove their points as they discussed theories about Anticipatory Pleasure Skills Training: A New Intervention to Reduce Anhedonia in Schizophrenia. I particularly liked the idea that they did a two year comprehensive program including assertive community treatment, social skills training, and multifamily therapy groups that led to significantly less positive and negative symptoms, less comorbid substance buse, and significantly greater satisfaction with treatment. The author thought a more specific and symptom-centered approach because they felt it might lead to specific improvement in a shorter period of time. This symptom-specific strategy has been used in other studies for positive symptoms, allowing the development of successful specific therapeutic techniques. The case studies presented in this article highlight the use of this specific symptom approach for Anhedonia. Anhedonia has been defined as a reduction in the ability to experience pleasure. It has been regarded as a core clinical feature of schizophrenia. Research has produced a paradoxical set of findings, raising questions about its nature. Individuals with schizophrenia typically report experiencing lower levels of pleasure in their daily lives than non-patients on self-report measures of trait social and physical Anhedonia. Anticipatory pleasure is linked to motivational processes that promote goal-directed behaviors; consummatory pleasure is associated with satiety. The Temporal Experience of Pleasure Scale is a trait measure of pleasure that distinguishes between â€Å"momentary pleasure† and â€Å"anticipation of future pleasure activities. The illumination of a new way of conceptualizing Anhedonia in schizophrenia permits redefinition and calibration of the symptom complex as a target for treatment. If persons with schizophrenia show a deficit in their ability to anticipate pleasure rather than consummatory pleasure, then it becomes possible to consider that cognitive training might help these individuals anticipate pl easure from foreseeable, future activities. Greater ability to anticipate pleasure would lead to a meaningful increase in spontaneous daily activities performed. Five participants were included in this pilot study. The participants were recruited from the regular clinical practices of the authors. The first and second authors were working in a mobile team of a community psychiatry outpatient service. The different members of this team worked as clinical case managers and were specialized in engaging difficult-to-reach patients in a comprehensive recovery program including therapeutic, occupational, and vocational services. The third author was working in a nursing home for psychiatric patients. The intervention was proposed to the patient when Anhedonia was reported as a challenging behavior impeding improvement in the care of the patient. To be included, participants had to be on a moderate dose of maintenance antipsychotic medication, with stable dosage for at least the past 3 months, and not be suffering from a major depression (score less than 12 on the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia [CDSS]). As the intervention was delivered in the routine care, signed informed consent to use the gathered data was obtained retrospectively for patients 1, 2, and 3. The internal review board of the nursing home approved the study, and patients 4 and 5 signed the informed consent form before their participation in the study. The participants were four men and one woman. All participants met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition, Text Revision) criteria for schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Diagnosis was obtained at the referral time with discussion with the referring psychiatrist. Participant 1 left school by the age of 16 and had no further education or training. He had been housebound for 3 years except during acute somatic or psychiatric care. Participants 2 and 3 were working part time in competitive employment. Participants 1 and 2 lived at home with their parents; participant 3 lived alone in her own apartment. Participants 4 and 5 had been institutionalized in a nursing home for 14 years and 30 years, respectively, and did not work. Participants 1, 4, and 5 had a history of alcohol abuse. Participant 1 used cannabis when friends visited him at home. The intervention is a cognitive-sensory intervention that aims at increasing anticipatory pleasure. Participants are trained in state of relaxation to anticipate pleasure from potential enjoyable activities and to get the sensation of the pleasure in their bodies. The different steps of the program are described below. 1. Building the rationale for the intervention. The rationale is built by asking questions to participants in order to elicit the importance of being able to anticipate pleasure from future activities, and the links between desire and motivation. Examples of these questions are: How do you prompt yourself to engage in activities? What makes an activity more or less attractive? What are your criteria to assess if the effort to engage in an activity is worthwhile? 2. List of pleasant activities. The therapist and the patient will list past enjoyable activities that the person would like to resume, actual activities that the person would like to increase, and novel activities associated with new roles that the person would like to assume. For example, a participant who wants to be closer to his/her sister could engage in the activity of preparing a dinner for his/her sister and her boyfriend. . Classifying activities according to their difficulty. These listed activities are then classified according to the difficulty and complexity of the task. The classification is done from easy-to-do to difficult-to-do. Examples of simple activities are (a) going to the corner of the street and having a kebab, (b) taking a walk with a good friend, (c) taking a shower, etc. Complex activities related to social or professional roles are split in smaller reachable units before engaging in a more challenging activity. For example, going to the stadium to support one's favorite hockey team could be split in a more achievable goal such as inviting a friend to watch one's team on TV if going to a crowded sports arena is an obstacle to engaging in the activity. 4. Anticipating pleasure. During the first sessions, the therapist uses standardized material to teach the anticipatory skills. The material is composed of attractive picture-viewing activities such as biting an appetizing apple, drinking a frothy coffee presented in a lovely cup, or walking in a beautiful park. In subsequent sessions, the training focuses on the activities listed with the patient. At the beginning of each session, as patients may be â€Å"contaminated† by co-occurring unpleasant emotions (Horan, Green, Kring, & Nuechterlein, 2006), the therapist will start with a mindfulness or relaxation exercise to help the patient be in a comfortable, pleasant emotional state. Then, the patient is asked to imagine doing the chosen activity. The therapist guides the patient to imagine the sensations linked to the activity through the senses involved (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste). The patient is invited to remember past positive experiences of the activity (e. g. , Imagine that you are smelling the odor of the best kebab you have ever eaten . . . Feel the smell of the grilled meat in your nose . . . Concentrate on this odor . . . Try to feel it as vividly as possible). The patient is asked to anticipate pleasant emotions (e. g. , Feel the sensations associated with the joy of being with your friend . . . You told me that this friend is funny . . . Imagine the sensations that go with laughing. Scan your body and remember how it is to laugh . . . ). According to the anticipated activity, the patient may be guided to anticipate the feeling of accomplishment (e. g. , Feel the contentment of getting out of the shower. . . How is it to feel clean and fresh? Try to get this feeling fully . . . Anticipate the sensation of reward. . . How is it? ). If the patient shows difficulty in imagining sensations and feelings, pictures can be presented. Patients have to assess their desire to perform the activity on a 5-point scale before and after each exercise. 5. Prescribing homework exercises. As participants develop anticipatory pleasure skills, the therapist prescribes homework exercises. After participants accomplish single activities in daily living, more difficult activities are trained. Participant 1 received 10 hours of training at home, aimed at giving him the desire to go outside. Participants 2 and 3 received, respectively, 25 hours and 20 hours of training at the therapist's office. Participants 4 and 5 received 11 sessions of 1. 5 hours of training each in a weekly group session. Instruments: The therapists have administrated the instruments as clinical tools to assess anticipatory and consummatory pleasure, time budget, negative symptoms, and depression. The TEPS. The TEPS measures momentary pleasure and pleasure in anticipation of future activities. It is an 18-item self-report measure of trait, and anticipatory (10 items) and consummatory (8 items) pleasure (Gard et al. , 2006). The validation of the French version of the TEPS shows psychometric characteristics similar to the original version (Favrod et al. , 2009) with a satisfactory internal and external validity. The mean theoretical range of the two scales goes from 1 to 6; higher scores indicate more pleasure. The scale was administrated in pretests and posttests. The Time Budget Measure: The measure developed by Jolley et al. (2005, 2006) takes the form of a weekly diary completed retrospectively during a structured interview with the participant. In completing the measure, interviewers probe for activities, degree of independence in activities, and number and nature of social contacts. They also check that the week is a typical or average week, and, if not, complete the time budget on a different occasion to assess an average week. Each day is divided into four time blocks (morning, lunchtime, afternoon, evening). Each time period or block is then rated from 0 to 4 as below: 0 = nothing – lying, thinking, sleeping, sitting, etc. , 1 = predominantly passive activity (e. g. , watching TV, listening to the radio), 2 = an independent activity requiring some planning and motivation, but relatively simple or brief (e. g. , a walk to the local shops to get cigarettes, tidying room, washing up, preparing a simple meal for oneself), 3 = several two-rated activities completely filling a time period, sounding ‘busy', or a more complex and demanding, but unvaried or shorter activity (e. g. a visit involving public transport, prolonged social contact with others), and 4 = time period filled with a variety of demanding independent activities requiring significant motivation and planning, and with some variation in tasks (e. g. , work, a course of study, a trip out requiring organization). When more than one activity is present, the highest scoring activity is rated. There are 28 time blocks for the week, and the total possible score ranges from 0 to 112. The time budget was not used for the patients in the nursing home because the time-budget of these patients depended on the institutional routine. The week assessed should be a typical or average week, and if not, the time budget is completed in relation to a week chosen to be more representative. Time budget has a satisfactory criterion and construct validity, and shows good inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability (Jolley et al. , 2005, 2006). In the present study, the participants were interviewed on their time budget starting from the day before the assessment meeting until 7 days before this meeting. The time budget was assessed in pretests and posttests. The CDSS. The CDSS was used to assess depressive symptoms (Addington, Addington, Maticka-Tyndale, & Joyce, 1992). The CDSS is a largely validated interview-based measure that has been shown to assess depression rather than positive, negative, or extrapyramidal symptoms (Addington, Addington, & Maticka-Tyndale, 1993, 1994; Addington et al. , 1992). The scale is validated in French (Lan?on, Auquier, Reine, Bernard, & Toumi, 2000; Lan?on, Auquier, Reine, Toumi, & Addington, 1999). The CDSS was administrated in pretest only to assess the severity of depression. Depression defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition, Text Revision) criteria for major depressive episode corresponds to a mean score of 11. 8 (standard deviation [SD] = 3. 8) on the CDSS (Kim et al. , 2006). The Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms Anhedonia/ Asociality. The Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) assesses five symptom complexes to obtain clinical ratings of negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. They are affective blunting, alogia (impoverished thinking), avolition/apathy, anhedonia /asociality, and disturbance of attention. The final symptom complexes seem to have less obvious relevance to negative symptoms compared with the other four complexes. Assessments are conducted on a 6-point scale (0 = not at all to 5 = severe; Andreasen, 1989). The SANS is a valid instrument (Peralta & Cuesta, 1995); however, interrater reliability is reduced when clinicians use it in comparison to highly trained research assistants (Norman, Malia, Cortese, & Diaz, 1996). In the present study, only the anhedonia /asociality scale of the SANS was administrated in the pretest to assess the severity of Anhedonia. I feel the researchers can test their predictions using these methods because of what lengths they went to in presenting their techniques. They incorporated a lot of various useful ideas when testing their participants. Many angles were used to go into full detail in what steps were taken to evaluate each participant in this study. The authors I feel gave a very detail analysis of each step that was taken as to not leave out any variables in each case scenario. A cognitive-sensory training package focusing on anticipating future pleasant feelings about performing activities appears to improve anticipatory pleasure as measured by the TEPS. The high RCI indicates that the posttest scores of the anticipatory pleasure scale are reflecting important change for the five participants. These results, although preliminary, are very interesting because Anhedonia remains a particularly challenging symptom. Our second question related to whether an increase in anticipatory pleasure would be accompanied by an increase in daily activities. Concurrently, change in anticipatory pleasure, as measured by the scale, was accompanied by an increase in activity for the three participants for whom it was possible to fulfill the time budget. Participant 4 had been ritually visiting his mother once a week for years before training. At the end of the training, the nursing home team observed that the patient had added in every week a new spontaneous activity such as going to town to do shopping, planning a little trip, or spontaneously organizing an appointment with the hairdresser outside of the nursing home. Participant 5 had been accomplishing five household chores a day for many years and did not change his program at the end of the training. The participant had been institutionalized for a great part of his life. In previous work, we found a significant negative correlation between anticipatory pleasure and the avolition/apathy of the SANS (Favrod et al. , 2009). This correlation was lower than the one with the Anhedonia/asociality scale of the SANS, indicating a weaker link between these two variables. Apathy and avolition are probably associated with anticipatory pleasure. However, several other variables may affect activity and willingness, such as planning skills, motor skills, reinforcements provided by the environment, etc. The results indicated that the training did not seem to improve consummatory pleasure as a consequence of an increase in anticipatory pleasure. The lack of follow-up assessment did not allow observation of an eventual delay for improvement in consummatory pleasure as a consequence of improvement of anticipatory pleasure and engagement in new activities. Another explanation could be that both kinds of pleasure have some independence between them. Anticipatory pleasure is linked to motivational processes and consummatory pleasure with satiety processes. I feel the researchers did a very good job in describing every detail of their research. My reaction to this article is that I think Pleasure Skills Training can really help people with schizophrenia if done properly over an extended period of time under the right conditions. I as well sense that the article does contribute something interesting and important to the field. Individuals with schizophrenia already have a hard enough time in life and to go on living without experiencing a sense of pleasure is disheartening. This study shows that people living with schizophrenia if trained with the right circumstances can eventually learn how to experience pleasure. I felt this article was presented well and easy to read with what was presented. Going through this article it was clear where each step was and what was going on. The authors used wording appropriate to this article without using too much technical jargon where it was not needed. The readability for me was quite familiar because I have had to do assignments like this before. I think when any author presents an empirical article to the world where others besides advanced Psychologists read it; they indeed try and make it easily readable so that their ideas presented get across in the best way possible.

Open Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Open - Essay Example Scholars who note down history are identified as historians. Amongst all scholars, Herodotus is regarded as the father of history. This is based on his contributions to this discipline. In the modern world, the study of history entails a variety of fields. Therefore, several institutions are teaching history. Numerous scholars have concentrated on the discipline of history and political science. One of the most common historical quotes is â€Å"If you want to understand today, you have to search yesterday† by Pearl Buck (Quote garden 1). Buck was one of renowned scholars globally basing on her historical literature. The quote used by Buck asserts that for an individual to understand the present condition, he or she must explore the past. This quote simply means that an individual must refer to past occurrences in order to understand the present situation. For example, for one to understand the origin of man, one must refer to the historical information regarding the evolution of mankind. This information is explained by Charles Darwin who was one of the greatest scholars. This is a clear revelation that history is a discipline of critical importance to the society. Further analysis proves that Buck was committed to diverse issues that were overlooked in the past. History is regarded as a storehouse of information about societal behaviors (Stearns 1). There are several reasons as to why individuals study history. People live in the present, therefore; they fret about future occurrences. History grants individuals identity. According to historical data, one can be able to identify with his or her family, society and/or country. In most cases, the study of a family’s history is considered as the fundamental importance of history. For example, in the United States, individuals use history to identify with their ethnic groups. Furthermore, historical information about a country enables citizens to understand national values hence providing identity as its citizens (Stearns 1). In addition, history contributes to moral understanding (Stearns 1). When individuals engage in the study of history, they obtain information related to ethical contemplation. Several historians who possess prior knowledge of historical circumstances provide inspiration just like Pearl Buck with her quotations. Furthermore, history provides learners with certain skills that are essential in social change. Some of the skills that are acquired by history students enable them in managing social adjustments. History students have the ability to assess several phenomena including the capability to assess incompatible interpretations, assess verification, and assessing past instances of change (Stearns 1). The skills mentioned show that history provides information regarding the background of political institutions and society at large. The study of history and political science enhances the assessment of evidence from daily information. Also, learning history pr ovides the leaner with knowledge regarding how to sort out conflicts amongst different parties (Stearns 1). The experience in past events is also crucial in understanding change, in the society. In this case, the learner can analyze changes in the contemporary world. Historians claim that individuals do not have the ability to deal with the present situation as they are able to deal with the past. This is since they lack a clear standpoint regarding the

Middle East Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Middle East Studies - Essay Example This is achieved through networks of charitable organizations that also form the bases for political mobilization of the Islamists. The support for the Islamists stems from the fact that they are active and unified with proper organization in the provision of services to the population. For example, Hamas in Palestine, Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Muslim Brotherhood in Jordan and Egypt are actively involved in the management and development of resources in healthcare, education and infrastructure. Hamas rise and popularity in the Palestinian society can be attributed to the many social services that they provide to the society through its efficient network of social, sports and health facilities and libraries. Therefore, it is no wonder that in the elections held on January 2006, it won a massive 74 out of 132 seats in the Palestinian Legislative Council; thus, becoming the ruling party. The Hezbollah in Lebanon started as a military organization but transformed into a political outf it aimed at preventing the continued settlement of Israelis in parts of Lebanon especially the south. In the early 1990s, it transformed into an outfit for the solution of socio-economic problems of the society through integration into the Lebanese political system specifically the legislature. Their social welfare programs have included the provision of food rations to impoverished neighborhoods. This has increased their popularity in areas that the government has failed to provide utilities (Nicholas 73). The Muslim Brotherhood has been actively involved in the Egyptian civil society by taking up professional organizations making them efficient in the provision of social services. The failure by the state to provide these services to the people has endeared the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood making it involved in electoral politics in professional associations, trade unions and political parties (Haynes 241). War, Political Violence, Terrorism, Counter-terrorism in the Middle East si nce 1967 Since the Cold War era and the end of the Soviet Union, the United States has developed a bipartisan foreign policy known as selective engagement. This requires it to be applied differently depending on certain factors such as the issue at hand, the time of the issue and the preferences of the leader at the time of the occurrence. America’s policy in the engagement of war must be determined by factors such as the protection of national interests, the costs on the American citizen and the time of the engagement. Moreover, there is need for the availability of allies to shoulder the human, physical and financial burdens in the engagement and find a viable exit strategy that leaves the prevailing political environment in the country being stable than before (Lacquement 11) The Arab-Israeli conflict has been widely followed by the US regime through what is known as preventive and constructive diplomacy. Constructive diplomacy has involved assistance in the form of financ ial aid to Arab countries such as Egypt, Jordan and the Palestine Authority including Israel. This is achieved through information sharing on matters of terrorism and countering them by offering viable arrangements in addressing the security situation in the region. Russia has also proposed cooperation by the superpowers in the region to mitigate fear in the regions (Breslauer 286). The Iran-Iraq was about religious schisms such as the Sunni-Shia, the

Contract Creation and Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Contract Creation and Management - Assignment Example C-S claims quality of deliverables from Span has been unacceptable and behind schedule. C-S has demanded immediate transfer of all unfinished codes as it cannot afford to reschedule slips. C-S has also asserted the recession of the contract. Span, on the other hand, claims user requirements have grown disproportionately. Additionally, span claims C-S’s review time and approval was affected due to change in the structure of project management. In the simulation between Span Systems and C-S, both parties had a valid contract. C-S offered Span Systems a contract to create banking software to market within one year. Span accepted the legal offer and promised to deliver the software on time. However, there was a breach of contract between the two parties, and the contract required restructuring and clarification. When creating the contract, every clause should be fiercely negotiated as this will help both parties reach a consensus easily. Each party did not have a clear understanding of the specific requirements of the project. The final contract did not clearly define the roles and it was also ambiguous. There are various principles that apply to such issues. In this case, the contract should clearly define each party’s role as this will help in understanding roles. A successful business partnership can be achieved only if a contract is carefully reviewed before sign-off. Clarity of purpose is an essential aspect that ensures successful contracts. C-S asserted the recession of the contract with Span, but Span developed some negotiation points that could help save the project. There are contract clauses that can be used to start negotiations between C-S and Span. It is essential to analyze the pros and cons of each contract clause in consideration for the termination of the contract: requirements change which refers to changes in the user and system requirements since originally determined in the system study stage, substantial

Ch.5 - Book - America's Courts and the Criminal Justice System by Essay

Ch.5 - Book - America's Courts and the Criminal Justice System by David W. Neubauer, Henry F. Fradella - Essay Example Discretionary decision making occurs in the criminal courts to determine whether the person will enter the system and the kind of treatment the offender will receive while in the system. These decisions lead to development of behaviors, policies and attitudes which are not formally reviewed through the traditional channels within the legal system. In addition, the decisions making laws exist to the distinct disadvantage of the minor offender. The value system, attitudes and characteristics of the people empowered to implement discretion laws as well as the absence of structures to review decisions has contributed to discretionary justice. The decisions are exercised by a local patrolman determine the kind of laws to be enforced and against which person. Discretionary decisions made by a prosecutor determine the person to be charged with an offense and the nature of charge to be passed. The judge exercising discretionary powers in respect to passage of a sentence will determine the am ount of time the person will remain in the

Migration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Migration - Essay Example gree, the following analysis will engage the reader with a discussion of how the 19th century came to serve as the first representation of change that human migration had experienced in many hundreds of years. Further, as this topic is explored and related to source documentation that has been reviewed during the course of this semester, it is the further hope of this student that the reader will come to a more informed realization for how the changes that took place during the 19th century, with respect to migration and the impact that this continues to have with respect to the way in which the current world is defined and exhibited. Migration was also fundamentally impacted by the availability of resources that came to be present within places such as the United States, Canada, and South America. As markets began to open and the rate of international trade developed, the availability of individuals to move from one part of the globe to another was maximized alongside this dynamic. As such, recognizing that they might be able to drastically improve their lives by relocating to one of the previously mentioned areas of the globe, tens of thousands of people took it upon themselves to sell their possessions and travel the glove looking for better opportunities (Henderson, 2013). Further, the emancipation of the serfs within Russia and the relaxed political climates elsewhere encouraged something of a new dynamic with respect to the way in which people understood their own opportunities, the importance of native geography, and the potential for gain that movement could afford to them (Gevorkyan, 2013). As the lectur es noted, the broad majority of all of this migration took place between the Old World and the New. As such, 65% of all migration during the 19th century could be accounted for just within the United States and Canada. Benefitting wildly from this influx of labor and expertise, these economies grew by exponentially and allowed for the industrial

Reactions of Xanthine Oxidase and Aromatase Inhibitor Research Paper

Reactions of Xanthine Oxidase and Aromatase Inhibitor - Research Paper Example According to the findings, it can, therefore, be said that breast cancer, as well as ovarian cancer, is a large problem of medicine and both are life treating, especially for women. These cancers are of particular importance because they are promoted by estrogen. In 2000, approximately 130,000 women died of breast cancer; nearly two-thirds of these women were postmenopausal. In pre-menopausal women estrogen is produced in the ovaries, so reducing estrogen from other sources is not important, but in postmenopausal women, most of the estrogen in the body is produced in the adrenal gland from the conversion of androgens and also from adipose tissue through a special enzyme called aromatase. The large influence of the estrogen produced outside the ovaries by aromatization is clear. In postmenopausal women, their estrogen comes from the actions of aromatase-final step in the pathway of estrogen biosynthesis by creating an aromatic ring in the steroid molecule, and so its inhibitor may be used to treat estrogen tumors, and so, effective treatment in breast cancer is an aromatase inhibitor. Also, it is used in women when their ovaries are no longer producing estrogen. It is not the same in premenopausal women or the opposite effects appear, the main estrogen comes up from ovaries, not by conversion androgen to estrogen, so blocking aromatization effects does not increase the androgen production. According to clinical researches, a correlation has been establishing between estrogen receptors and the growth of breast cancer and so effective therapy can be made by aromatase inhibitor working more efficient then tamoxifen. The hormone estrogen delivers growth thru signals to the hormone receptors, so less estrogen in the body leads to fewer growth signals and stopping the growth of cancer. Now medical experts consider aromatase inhibitor for postmenopausal women with invasive hormone receptor positive for breast cancer, in the early and advanced stage. Aromatase inhibitor , according to research, can stimulate ovulation- can treat infertility. According to 65 patients included in the studies, drugs can suppress estrogen production in endometriosis and reduces pain and chance of endometriosis in combination with hormonal treatment. It is significant to mention that there should be no long-term use because it may cause bone loss. It also helps bodybuilders, who take anabolic steroids from being converted to estrogen such as in the case of gynecomastia. In one recent study, however, aromatase inhibitors were found to be no more successful at treating pubertal gynecomastia than a placebo. Aromatase inhibitors have also been shown to reverse age-related declines in testosterone, as well as primary hypogonadism. The third generation drugs: anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane have given remarkable specificity and potency. Leading thru initial results from clinical trials, these agents will become the cornerstones of future endocrine therapy as a successf ul rational drug. It is important that the aromatase inhibitor have additional benefits thru pleiotropic effects as a particular role in preventing cancer or treating benign conditions.

Poverty and Poor Health Conditions in Africa Essay

Poverty and Poor Health Conditions in Africa - Essay Example This trend is global but it is more rampant in Africa and other third world countries. The increment of poverty in Africa goes hand in hand with poor health conditions where Africans suffer and die from various diseases due to lack of better health care, illiteracy, poor living conditions, poor sanitation and low income. The main objective of this research project is to tackle the influence of poverty on poor health conditions in Africa. This project will review international researches to identify the extent Africa is affected by Tuberculosis, HIV/aids, Malnutrition and Lack of Vaccinations due to its poverty. By analyzing, the data of the affected Africans and their links to poverty the research will discuss the way forward for the African continent to limit these poor health conditions. In addition to that, this research will explore ways to improve the development of better health conditions. Kofi Annan, who is a former UN Secretary General while addressing the 2001 World Health Assembly identified the biggest enemy of health in Africa and other developing world as poverty. He claimed that poverty makes people live in a polluted environment that comprises of poor sanitation, inadequate clean water and poor housing that increase slums in Africa. The poor living conditions are responsible for the spread of tuberculosis due to overcrowding and polluted atmosphere. In the assembly, he stated that poverty leads to hunger, that makes the poor vulnerable to diseases (World Development Indicators, 2001). The rising poverty level in Africa and the widening gap between the rich and the poor has led to the increment of TB, malnutrition and HIV/AIDS. Past research in South Africa, which is a middle economic country, proves the truth in Annan’s statement as it shows that although the country is one of the richest in Africa, most people in the country live below the poverty line. More than 52% of the citizens live below the poverty line, thus has to live

Discuss the contribution of material culture Essay Example for Free

Discuss the contribution of material culture Essay The aim of this essay is to explore how useful material culture studies is to understanding societies which existed under Roman rule, especially those of Gaul and Britain. These provinces of Rome adopted Roman culture and used Roman objects for their own use, which could come under the heading of cultural bricolage, where new cultural items are obtained by attributing new functions to previously existing ones, however I shall address this later on in the essay. Woolf comments that anthropologists and archaeologists use the concept of culture as a way of making sense of the diversity of human societies that cannot be expressed simply in terms of biological variation. It is seen by many to be a more precise way of understanding societies rather than seeing how advanced or rich a society was.1 Studying and understanding social identity can also be seen as an excellent alternative to relying on narratives written by Roman authors who were biased and wrote from a Romano-centric position, and it also allows us to consider other elements, for instance class,status, gender, age, occupation, and religion. Material culture can be defined as the study through artifacts (and other pertinent historical evidence) of belief systemsthe values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptionsof a particular community or society, usually across time. As a study, it is based upon the obvious premise that the existence of a man-made object is concrete evidence of the presence of a human mind operating at the time of fabrication. The common assumption underlying material culture research is that objects made or modified by humans, consciously or unconsciously, directly or indirectly, reflect the belief patters of individuals who made, commissioned, purchased, or used them, and, by extension, the belief patterns of the larger society of which they are a part. 2 Concerning Roman culture, Woolf defines it as the range of objects, beliefs and practices that were characteristic of people who considered themselves to be, and were widely acknowledged as, Roman. It is believed that every man-made object required the operation of some thought and design. Therefore it is the assumption of material culture studies that this thought is a reflection of the culture that produced the man-made objects. With this theory we can see, in some way, how a culture, which had no written records of its existence, lived. One advantage of material culture studies is that it is beneficial to social historians who wish to know about an entire group and not just the elites of a particular society. A useful definition of the term archaeology is that it uses fieldwork and excavation, and the comparative study of sites and objects to compile information about the pastwhich can illuminate aspects of Roman life which were never recorded. However it does have its limitations as it cannot achieve certainty as all known sites and artefacts are merely a surviving sample of what once existed- and not necessarily a representative sample.4 So in understanding identity we may be able to place these artefacts in context as we will know what particular objects are used for certain practices, for instance burial customs or forms of pottery produced.5 Jones defines cultural identity as that aspect of a persons self-conceptualization which results from identification with a broader group in opposition to others on the basis of perceived cultural differentiation and/or common descent..6 Concerning material culture, Pitts chose 12 areas of study, these were: architecture, art, epigraphy (inscriptions in stone), faunal remains(animal bones), floral remains, funerary evidence, literature, monumentality, pottery, settlement (morphology and landscape archaeology) and small finds(portable material culture other than pottery).7 Epigraphic inscriptions allows us to observe how literacy spread through Gaul and Britain, along with helping us to trace an outline of the cultural geography of Roman Gaul8 Woolf also comments that inscriptions are useful as they represent a wide range of Roman cultural customs which included political, cultic, and funerary practices. He adds to this by suggesting that inscriptions should be seen as attempts made by people to assert their identities and to show their achievements in terms of status. Art and architecture are important as it gives us some insight into cultural ideologies, however this type of evidence only really survived if it was owned by the elites of the society, and the art and mosaics were only limited to this class, so it has its biases. Although it does have its uses as we can see how the adoption of villa architecture by the British and Gaulish tribes shows the acceptance and spread of Roman culture throughout the conquered countries.

How the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou Essay Example for Free

How the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou Essay In the chapter 15 as we call Sister Flowers from How the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou, allows us the readers to experience the day with Margareute Johnson through her writing style as if we were experiencing it through her eyes and deep inside her thoughts. Her use of imagery, metaphors, similes and narration helps us paint and imagine a vivid picture in our own minds. Just like when Angelou is describing Sister Flowers, â€Å"Her skin was a rich black that would have peeled like a plum if snagged . . .† Her use of a simile comparing a plum helps us imagine the details such as being smooth, soft, and shiny, just as she saw Sister Flower’s dark black skin. Her use of imagery helps us experience things she saw, the smells she smelt, as if we were right there experiencing it with her. â€Å"The sweet scent of vanilla had met us as she opened the door.† As we read this we can in our heads invent in our minds how Sister Flowers house smelled like vanilla, as she was about to step into her house. Angelou gets us thinking that Sister Flowers had probably just got done baking. â€Å"They were flat round wagers, slightly browned on the edges and butter-yellow in the center.† Angelou already gave us her sense of smell, now she is using imagery to describe her sense of sight of the cookies that Sister Flowers just baked especially for Margareute. Now she is getting our mouths watering for some of Sister Flower’s cookies. Angelou with out a doubt had a good writing style using a lot of similes, imagery, metaphors, and narration to improve our ability to acknowledge every little smell, every little detail and that she saw, just pretty much everything that was going through her head as she was living it first hand.

Aggregate Demand And The Level Of Economic Activity Economics Essay

Aggregate Demand And The Level Of Economic Activity Economics Essay Introduction Collection of revenue and the use of government expenditure which affect the economy is termed as fiscal policy. Fiscal policy can be distinguished with the major sort of macroeconomic policy, monetary policy, which stabilizes the economy by controlling rate of interest and supply of money. Two major objectives of fiscal policy are taxation and expenditure of government Transforming in the level , composition of taxation and government expenditure can force on the following variables in an economy : Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity; The pattern of resource allocation; The distribution of income. Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity: At a given time the price level and the total demand for goods and services in an economy(Y) is called aggregate demand (AD) . [1]. It is the quantity of goods and services in an economy that will be obtained at all probable price levels.[2] When inventory levels are static the demand for the gross domestic product of an economy is termed as aggregate demand. It is also called effective demand although at other times this term is differentiated. It is often quoted that the aggregate demand curve is downward sloping as at lower price levels a larger amount is demanded. Components of Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity: An aggregate demand curve is the summation of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy. The aggregate demand is generally expressed as a linear sum of four divisible demand sources.[3] where is consumption (may also be known as consumer spending) = ac + bc(Y à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ T), is Investment, is Government spending, is Net export, is total exports, and is total imports = am + bm(Y à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ T). The pattern of resource allocation: Resource allocation is generally used to allot the resource available in an economy in an economic way. How limited resources are allocated among producers, and how limited goods and services are distributed among consumers , this study takes into observation the accounting cost, economic cost, opportunity cost, and other costs of resources and goods and services. Allotment of resources is a vital idea in economics and is related with economic effectiveness and maximization of utility. The distribution of income: Amongst the population of a nation how the nations total economy is allocated is termed as income distribution. It has always been a major concern of economic policy and economic theory. The allocation of income between the vital factors of production, land, labor and capital are considered to express income distribution. Fiscal policy is a vital factor for the economic development of a country. In Bangladesh fiscal policy consists of activities, which the country carries out to attain and utilize resources to afford services while ensuring optimal efficiency of the economic units. This policy controls the behavior of economic forces throughout the public finance. The main factors to attain these goals are variation in public expenditure, variation in public revenue, and management of public debt. These are revealed in the financial planning operations of the government, set up and executed on year-on-year basis. Literature Review For the overall economic development of a country fiscal policy and its management exert greater influence on economic activity. To boost up an economic infrastructure many research and study have been done by economists and policymakers. In this section literature abounds on the effectiveness and importance of fiscal policy in developed and developing countries of the world. Developing countries are facing dual challenges while undertaking fiscal adjustment policies. One arises from the increasing demand for public expenditures for Infrastructure and social sector investment, and the other arises from the lack of capacity to raise revenue from domestic sources to finance the increased expenditure, primarily due to narrow tax base. To boost competitive capacity of the country in a rapidly globalizing world, the governments of developing countries have to invest a large portion of their revenue in building physical infrastructures. In addition, the low income developing countries also need to spend a major portion of their development expenditures in providing social services to the poor such as health, education etc. On the other hand, as Khattry (2003: 402) pointed out, the structural characteristics of low income countries, combined with prevalence of unsophisticated tax administration limit their ability to raise taxes from domestic sources, namely income and domestic indirect taxes. Also, the existence of a large informal sector and the underground economy constrains the governments capacity for revenue growth. Another source of fiscal problem arises with the process of trade liberalization that requires reduction of taxes on international trade together with the elimination of quantitative restrictions and other forms of trade barriers. Therefore countries have to resort to domestic sources to compensate the revenue loss emanating from trade liberalization. As the scope of domestic sources of revenue is limited due to the narrow tax base and structural constraints in the low income countries, this may lead to a vulnerable fiscal position. In principle, a well functioning VAT system on import combined with broad based low tariffs) can recoup some of the revenue loss due to the greater inflow of imports that eventually follows trade liberalization. National Strategy for Accelerated Poverty Reduction (NSAPR) of Bangladesh (2005) recognizes that, as government revenue is heavily dependent on trade taxes, and tariff liberalization typically results in tariff revenue loss, alternative sources of revenue must be ensured in order to prevent a sudden rise in budget deficit (which is already high). In order to recoup revenue losses due to tariff liberalization government is trying to increase revenue from direct taxes. It is also envisaged that indirect taxes such as VAT and supplementary duty are applied uniformly on both domestic production and imports, it would both reduce anti-export bias and increase government revenue by widening the tax-net (NSAPR, 2005, p.86). Trade liberalization may thus lead to a fiscal squeeze as a result of re duced revenue and simultaneous increase in expenditure. According to Khattry (2003) fiscal squeeze led some countries to reduce expenditure on physical capital, while that on social services (e.g. health and education) has been financed by acquiring additional debt. However, it has been empirically substantiated that government capital expenditure plays an important role in enhancing economic growth. Bose et al (2003) investigated a panel of thirty developing countries over the decades of 1970s and 1980s, and found that, the share of government capital expenditure in GDP is positively and significantly correlated with economic growth though current expenditure is insignificant. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relationship between revenue and expenditure and its implication for managing the budget deficit. In order to do this a three variable model is formulated comprising government expenditure, revenue and GDP. Firstly, existence of a long-run relationship among these three variables is tested by using Johansen (1991, 1995) co integration approach. Granger causality test is applied on the corresponding vector error correction model to examine short-run causal relationship between the variables The goal of fiscal policy is to enhance economic growth and employment and to bring stability in economic outcome variables such as the real GDP growth rate. Under the above circumstances, the nature and objectives of fiscal policy may differ with the level of development of the countries. Long run outcome of expansionary fiscal policy depends on the nature of distribution of public resources as the same amount of public money can generate different growth pay-offs in different sectors, and the overall growth of the economy depends on the combined growth of these sectors When the government takes expansionary fiscal policy (expenditure surpassing revenue) either through increasing expenditure or reducing taxes or both, it has to borrow from internal and external sources to finance the deficit. The concept of deficit budget was popularized by Keynes and his followers -the principal argument is that government can boost up economic growth by increasing government expenditures in the short run. Again the government has to shrink its expenditures during the time of growth as excessive aggregate demand can generate inflation. In contrary to the above theory some economists argue that budget deficit negatively affects economic growth According to the advocates of the latter view, lowering budget deficit reduces interest rate thereby increasing investment, which in turn enhances economic growth The risk of expansionary fiscal policy is that, it leads to public debt growth, where it is envisaged that the growth of the economy will be significant enough in the subsequent periods so that the government will have a larger revenue base to finance its enhanced debt obligations. However, failure to generate enough economic growth may force the government into a deficit trap. Therefore the government has to borrow again to finance its deficit -this time may be in greater volume due to increase in the expenditure for repaying principal and interest of previous periods deb t even if the magnitude of public sector activities remains unaltered. There is also a risk that, government borrowing from domestic sources may crowd out private investment by raising the rate of interest. Constraining private investment in this fashion and expending the same amount of money in less productive sectors of the economy can negatively affect overall growth of the economy. As mentioned by Carneiro et al (2004, p.9), if economic agents are non Recording due to credit constraints and overlapping generation, public deficit can have a negative impact on growth as public deficits can hamper growth by competing with private physical capital for individual savings. Conversely, in developing countries public investment can be influential to crowd in private investment as shown by Binswanger et al (1993); infrastructure accessibility and the rural banks are crucial factors for increasing private investment in agriculture, which requires substantial government intervention in fac ilitating private investment. Given excess liquidity in the system (as it is the case in Bangladesh), in spite of significant public borrowing from the banking system over the last 4-6 months, private credit actually proceeded at its usual pace. This however need not be true all the time. Bangladeshs fiscal policy is closely linked to its monetary policy because public budget deficits are mainly financed by increases in money supply. Theoretically, expansionary fiscal policy would generate an increased supply of high-powered money in the face of frequent adjustment in the budget deficit and can provoke price spiral if there is no excess capacity in the economy (Friedman 1956; Friedman and Kuttner 1992). However, increasing government borrowing from central bank is seen as highly inflationary in the case of Bangladesh. But it should be noted that under the situation of chronic slow down of general demand (i.e. a general glut in the economy) higher public expenditure can create higher economic activity by protecting the falling trend in demand which is financed by increased public borrowing (Kiguel 1989). However, there is a general consensus among economists and policy-makers that regulating the growth of money stock is necessary to achieve a fairy stable price level a nd full employment of an economy (Sims 1972) Blanchard and Perotti (2002) use information about the elasticity of fiscal variables to identify the automatic response of fiscal policy, and find that expansionary fiscal shocks increase output, have a positive effect on private consumption, and a negative impact on private investment. More recently, using sign restrictions on the impulse-response functions and identifying the unexpected variation in government spending by a positive response of expenditure for up to four quarters after the shock, Mountford and Uhlig(2005) find a negative effect in residential and non-residential investment Similar studies applied to other countries are relatively scarce, largely due to the limited availability of quarterly public finance data, and, in addition, do not provide a consensual view. Perotti (2004) investigates the effects of fiscal policy in Australia Canada, Germany and the U.K., and finds a relatively large positive effect on private consumption and no response of private investment. Biau and Girard (2005) find a cumulative multiplier of government spending larger than one, and positive reactions of private consumption and private investment in France. De Castro and Hernà ¡ndez de Cos2006) use data for Spain and show that, while there is a positive relationship between government expenditure and output in the short-term, in the medium and long-term expansionary spending shocks only lead to higher inflation and lower output. Heppke- Falk et al. (2006) use cash data for Germany, and find that a positive shock in government spending increases output and private consumption, although the effect is relatively small. Giordano et al. (2007) show that, in Italy, government expenditure has positive and persistent effects on output and on private consumption. Analysis The Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, state of southern Asia, in the northeastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, edged on the north, east and west by India, on the southeast by Burma (Myanmar), and on the south by the Bay of Bengal. The total area of the country is 147,570 sq km with a population of 126 million. It lies roughly between 20 °34 and 26 °36 North latitude and between 88 °01 and 92 °41 east longitude. The capital and leading city of Bangladesh is Dhaka. The economy of Bangladesh is comprised by that of a developing country. Its per capita income in 2008 was est. US$1,500 (adjusted by purchasing power parity) significantly lower than India, Pakistan, both which are also lesser than the world average of $10,497. According to the gradation by the International Monetary Fund, Bangladesh ranked as the 48th largest economy in the world in 2008, with a gross domestic product of US$224.889 billion. The economy has grown at the rate of 6-7% p.a. over the past few years. More than half of the GDP belongs to the service sector; nearly half of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with RMG, fish, vegetables, leather and leather goods, ceramics, rice as other essential produce. The aim of the governments fiscal management is striking a weighing balance between government revenue and expenditure. One more foremost goal is to uphold shortage in the existing budget as much as reasonable for advanced investment in the public division. As a result of cautious fiscal policy and strengthening of fiscal management, overall fiscal deficiency through the current decade remained unchanged. To formulate and execute sound fiscal policy is one of the most significant functions of the government. It puts importance on sustaining macroeconomic constancy through balancing public expenditure management. There is no substitute to sound fiscal management in overall economic governance as a fair public income and expenditure management that assures private sector institutions and individuals a steady macroeconomic background. The vital source of government revenue is tax. Public revenue mainly consists of direct and indirect taxes which accounted for more than 80 percent of total government revenue. The government collects the rest of the public revenue from different non-tax collection such as fee, charge, toll etc. The level of revenue assortment is a vital indicator to establish the step of economic development of a country. The economy of a country becomes more stable if it collects large amount of revenue. In this section we are going to analyze the fiscal condition of Bangladesh during the time period from FY-1991 to FY-2008.During these years Prudent fiscal management emerged as a most important challenge facing the country. The Governments revenue mobilization efforts developed remarkably in the early 1990s following the launch of some major fiscal reforms, mainly introduction of the value-added tax (VAT) in 1991.The VAT provided greater coverage and raised rates than the taxes that it restored (mostly excise duty). The revenue tax to GDP ratio rose from 5.9 percent in FY1991 to 7.3 percent in FY1993, but since then, the proportion has remained steady at about 7 percent. A stagnant tax to GDP ratio reveals lack of improvement in broadening the tax net and in improving the tax management system; in brief, the effectiveness of tax assortment remains fragile and futile. Specifically, the Government has failed to widen the coverage of direct taxes, broaden VAT coverage to high-revenue-y ielding trades and services, develop the implementation of import taxes, and bolster tax government. Conversely, nontax revenues are relatively small (a bit less than 2 percent of GDP), and they also festered over much of the 1990s. As consequence, since FY1993, the entire revenue to GDP ratio has altered around 9 percent, making revenue collection of Bangladesh effort one of the weakest in the global economy. In spite of unsatisfactory revenue collection efforts for much of the 1990s, the Government was capable to uphold the fiscal shortage within 4-5 percent of GDP by keeping spending under control. Government expenditure, both current and capital increased rapidly. Therefore, the fiscal scarcity went up to indefensible levels. With declining alternatives to foreign funding of the deficit, the Government had been compelled to finance the shortfall from domestic sources -from banking sector and domestic borrowing. The ensuing monetary adjustment seriously damaged macroeconomic stability. Table 4 : Selected Fiscal Indicators (Percent of Gross Domestic Product) Because of drop of the revenue to GDP ratio to 9 percent in FY1998-99 from 9.3 percent in FY1997-98, caused by flood-induced disruptions, the Government attempted to reverse the declining trend and projected revenue to GDP ratio of 10 percent in the FY1999-00 budget. In spite of establishing a verified revenue mobilization object, no major efforts were made to apply vital fiscal reforms, reduce the tax structure, strengthen tax management, and extend the tax foundation. Moreover, the hindrance in introducing the reshipment assessment scheme, and slothful growth in imports also added to revenue shortfall. Customs duties collection declined by 10 percent in FY1999-00 compared with FY1998-99, and the share of customs duties in National Board of Revenue portion of taxes declined to 28 percent from 32 percent. Nontax revenue collection was also less than projected due mainly to reduced profit and dividend earnings of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). In FY1999-00, losses of nonfinancial SOE s were estimated at Tk31 billion, or 1.3 percent of GDP. Therefore, actual revenue mobilization in FY1999-00 rotated to be considerably below budget projections, at 8.9 percent of GDP. Government expenditure increased to 13.8 percent of GDP in FY1999-00 from 13.3 percent in FY1998-99, because of a rush in the outlay resulting from flood-induced expenditure, particularly the requirement for extra imports of food grains and post flood rehabilitation outlays. The tendency prolonged in FY1999-00 with overall expenses rising to 15 percent of GDP. Though the Government was capable to Keep up current spending at 7.6 percent of GDP (the same percentage as in the previous year), spending under the annual development program (ADP) went up to 6.7 percent of GDP from5.6 percent in FY1998-99. In the FY1999-00 budget, the Governments aim was to reduce expenses to 7.4 percent of GDP. It was a determined aim in view of the coming general election (scheduled for October 2001) when the pressures on t he Government to accommodate increased expenditure is bound to be considerable. Allocation for the ADP in the FY2000-01 budget was 6.5 percent of GDP, 50 percent of which was expected to be financed from domestic resources, and 40 percent of the domestic funding of the ADP would be from bank borrowing. The choice to fund a superior development budget with substantial borrowing from banks had risks to sustain macroeconomic constancy. While 34 percent of the ADP funds have been allocated to sectors that address poverty directly, about 33 percent had been assigned to infrastructure development comprising energy, transport, and communication. Not all ADP projects could be justified on grounds of accelerating the pace of development; several projects had questionable merit. What was more worrying was that some low -priority projects were being financed by high-cost foreign suppliers credits. In FY 1999-00, revenue/GDP ratio was 8.47 percent, which step by step went up to 10.79 percent in FY2005-06. In FY 2007-08 the revenue/GDP more went up to 11.17 percent and the g rowing trend of revenue-GDP ratio further increased to 11.24 percent in FY2008-09. Table 4.1 illustrates tax and non-tax revenue receipts and tax-GDP ratio within the period from FY1999-00 to FY2008-09. From the beginning of the FY2008-09 the revenue objectives of fiscal year came under challenge because of the impact of worldwide financial crisis. The international economy plunged into collapse mainly for noxious credit crisis in the US financial organizations and gigantic falls in prices of commodities like fuel, fertilizer etc. This price drop caused poorer collection of import duties which is the largest source of revenue although the price of commodities favored reduction of high inflation condition. The assortment of import duty in FY 2008-09 fell diminutive of the goals as the import duty is established on the basis of prices of the imported commodities. Study of revenue collection activities for FY2008-09 by categories illustrates that the volume of revenue collection attains from value added tax (VAT).Income tax takes up the second position in the row. Next places are held by import duties, complementary duty, additional taxes and excise duty. On the whole, the part of VAT in the entire revenue collection is progressively increasing. It can be states that, income tax occupies second place above import duties for the second consecutive time. In FY 2008-09, though the entire revenue collection by NBR source fell diminutive of the goals but overall revenue collection stood at TK. 52525.61 crore, which is TK. 5236.49 crore higher than the assortment of the previous fiscal year showing an 11.07 percent increase. In FY 2007-08, total revenue collection placed at TK. 47289.12 crore, which was Tk. 10,069.8 crore or27.06 percent higher than the assortment of the previous year. In FY 2006-07, the total revenue collection under NBR amounted to Tk. 37219.32 crore which was Tk. 3,216.89 crore or 9.46 percent higher than that of the previous year. Item-wise tax collection from FY2006-07 to FY2008-09 is shown in Table 4.2. Management of public expenditure is the most vital part for the fiscal management of the government. The major aims of fiscal management are to uphold social safety net activities, inspire expenditure in productive level, practice austerity in public expenditure and controls over unproductive expenses. Reducing poverty through improving the standards of living of the generals, building physical infrastructure and developing human resources are the key features of large public outlays in every year. Total public expenditure, development expenditure and expenditure/GDP ratio for FY 2008-09 and during the last decade are shown in Table 4.3. Investigation of entire non-development expenditure illustrates that in FY 2003-04, expenditure on pay and allowances was 27.4 percent of total non-development expenses. In FY 2004-05 and FY 2005-06 these percentage decreased to 25.3 and 27.6 respectively, but went up to 28.5 percent in FY 2006-07 and again decreased to 23.6 percent in FY 2008-09. In FY 2003-04, the spending on subsidy and current transfer accounted for 28.4 percent of entire non-development expenses. In FY 2004-05, FY 2005-06, FY 2006-07 and FY 2008-09 the spending on subsidy and current transfer accounted for 30.1, 29.1, 31.4 and 40.5 percent of entire non-development expenses correspondingly. In FY 2004-05, FY 2005-06, FY2006-07 and FY 2008-09 the shares of interest payments on foreign and domestic credits in total non-development cost were 18.8, 19.8, 20.2 and 20.8 percent respectively. The average genuine cost against the adjusted allotment of ADP was around 90 percent during the time from 1999-00 to 2005-06 (Table 4.4). In FY2006-07 and FY 2007-08, the utilization of ADP is about 83 and 82 percent correspondingly. In FY 2008-09 the short-term expenditure records 85.7 percent utilization of revised allotment. The growing tendency of distribution and expenditure in socio-economic and physical infrastructure segments all the way through ADP is constant with the twin objectives of the government- attaining higher growth and diminishing poverty. ADP expenditure and its composition by key sectors are shown in Table 4.5. Budget is organized in line with the national plans and policies taken up for economic development, poverty diminution and social growth. There arises a budget shortage occurring from a space between the government revenue and expenditure, where expenditure becomes more important than the revenue income. The succeeding governments are taking policies to control resources and shifts earnings at an increased rate to the poor people of the country since over 40 percent of population live beneath poverty line. Though, this enhances budget shortage little further, but it generates purchasing power of a vast population that finally propel growth by escalating aggregate demand. It also facilitates a huge portion of the population to keep minimum livelihood. The tendency of budget shortage in Bangladesh obviously shows that shortage remains under 5 percent of GDP except for those years when there were natural catastrophies. Table 4.6 below represents data on budget shortage and the form of i ts financing throughout the time period from FY1999-00 to FY2008-09. At present the debit obligation of the government is at a reasonable stage. Financing throughout grant and credit from outer sources is progressively tightening because of shifting in the policies of contributors. This, prompted the government to take a variety of restructuring initiatives and to adopt inspirational measures to mobilize resources from domestic sources together with from external sources. In principle, the government has a preferences on concessional foreign borrowing to domestic borrowing due to the poorer outlays of foreign borrowing and longer reimbursement time period. Findings Bangladesh is a third worlds developing country. At present it is going through a financial crisis. To analyze any countrys financial condition the key factor is to investigate its fiscal policy and management as fiscal policy has a great impact on the countrys development procedure. In our term paper we have discussed the fiscal condition of Bangladesh in brief. Financing of regular insufficiency, generally undertaken through borrowings from abroad, from Bangladesh Bank, and from scheduled banks, has become a central characteristic of the fiscal policy of the country. Opportunity of borrowing from the public by the government for financing budget deficiency is very limited in the country as investments capability of the people is very low. Therefore, the opportunity of non-inflationary financing of budget shortfall does not exist here. Availability of foreign borrowing depends on the international liquidity situation and the prevailing circumstances in the international capital market, which is always uncertain and unpredictable for a country like Bangladesh. Here, some major key findings which has a great influence on Bangladeshi economy that we noted out from the analysis section are added : # Introduction of Value Added Tax (VAT) in early 1990s is one of the key fiscal reforms to develop a effective fiscal administration. # The revenue tax to GDP ratio rose from 5.9 percent in FY1991 to 7.3 percent in FY1993 # Because of drop of the revenue to GDP ratio to 9 percent in FY1998-99 from 9.3 percent in FY1997-98, caused by flood-induced disruptions, the Government attempted to reverse the declining trend and projected revenue to GDP ratio of 10 percent in the FY1999-00 budget # Customs duties collection declined by 10 percent in FY1999-00 compared with FY1998-99, and the share of customs duties in National Board of Revenue portion of taxes declined to 28 percent from 32 percent # In FY1999-00, losses of nonfinancial SOEs were estimated at Tk31 billion, or 1.3 percent of GDP. Therefore, actual revenue mobilization in FY1999-00 rotated to be considerably below budget projections, at 8.9 percent of GDP # In FY1998-99 there had a rush in the outlay resulting from flood-induced expenditure, particularly the requirement for extra imports of food grains and post flood rehabilitation expenses # In the FY1999-00 budget, the Governments aim was to reduce expenses to 7.4 percent of GDP. It was a determined aim in view of the coming general election (scheduled for October 2001) when the pressures on the Government to accommodate increased expenditure is bound to be considerable. # In FY 1999-00revenue/GDP ratio was 8.47 percent, which step by step went up to 10.79 percent in FY2005-06. In FY 2007-08 the revenue/GDP more went up to 11.17 percent and the growing trend of revenue-GDP ratio further increased to 11.24 percent in FY2008-09. # From the beginning of the FY2008-09 the revenue objectives of fiscal year came under challenge because of the impact of worldwide financial crisis. # In FY 2008-09, though the entire revenue collection by NBR source fell diminutive of the goals but overall revenue collection stood at TK. 52525.61 crore, which is TK. 5236.49 crore higher than the assortment of the previous fiscal year showing an 11.07 percent increase. In FY 2007-08, total revenue collection placed at TK. 47289.12 crore, which was Tk. 10,069.8 crore or27.06 percent higher than the assortment of the previous year. In FY 2006-07, the total revenue collection under NBR amounted to Tk. 37219.32 crore which was Tk. 3,216.89 crore or 9.46 percent higher than that of the previous year. Item-wise tax collection from FY2006-07 to FY2008-09 # The average genuine cost against the adjusted allotment of ADP was around 90 percent during the time from 1999-00 to 2005-06. In FY2006-07 and FY 2007-08, the utilization of ADP is about 83 and 82 percent correspondingly. In FY 2008-09 the short-term expenditure records 85.7 percent utilization of revised allotment. # The tendency of budget shortage in Bangladesh obviously shows that shortage remains under 5 percent of GDP except for those years when there were natural catastrophes. The findings

How does Elie Wiesel change in response to his concentration camp exper

Everyday, we go through situations and experiences that affect us in someway, perhaps even change us. Different situations have different effects. The more difficult the situation is, the more of an effect it has on us. Those hard times can be called adversity. How do we, as humans, react to adversity? What are the possible effects it may have?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An example of adversity is the Holocaust - Hitler‘s plan to exterminate the Jews. In the memoir, Night, we discover how Elie Wiesel changes in response to his concentration camp experiences. The separation from his loved ones and the horrible conditions of these camps affect Elie immensely. Elie is affected in the following ways: physically, emotionally and spiritually. The Holocaust had changed him into a completely different person.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Physically, Elie basically changes from a healthy human being into a walking skeleton. The Jews can be described as â€Å"skin and bones†. They were also extremely weak. Being forced to work at their labor camps must have been extremely difficult. The lack of food served at the camps, as well as the poor quality of what is being served made him that way. The Jews were only fed bread and soup. It gets to the point where everything revolves around food and each person’s own survival. For example, on page 104, Elie’s father claims that the other prisoners were beating him. Elie’s then says â€Å" I began to abuse his neighbors...